Ancient Political Authority

What is political authority in the ancient world?

In the ancient world, authority is held by an individual or by a small group of people. Fundamentally, an authority creates his own desired order over his realm.  Political authority and power are the same thing in the ancient world—power does not always mean physical strength (although it might, in some cases, e.g. Samson) but it is the ability to create order.  The more one orders, the greater one’s power is.   Political authority can be as little as having a wife and some property.  Most, though, desire greater authority, for this would grant them more honor in this life and grant them greater opportunity to gain “eternal life” through children (Genesis 35:11), an eternal reputation (Genesis 12:2-3) or a position in the afterlife (Isaiah 14:9)

Terms of political authority

In the ancient world, fathers are a political authority—in fact, kings and emperors are called “father” to acknowledge their authority.  A mother is also an authority, but not holding the same kind amount of authority, since they are under their husband as an authority as well.  A husband is an authority, with his woman or women being under subjection to him.  This does not mean that a wife or concubine cannot hold great authority—in fact, they act as representatives of their husband when the husband is absent.  In this way, the property of a dead husband without a son is attached to his widow and whoever “possesses” the widow through marriage also possesses the property until she gives birth to a son.  This is why Onan (Genesis 38:7-10) has sexual relations with his brother’s wife—to gain authority over his brother’s wife, including his property—but withdraws before his sperm is released, so in this way he would retain the property, for his brother would not have a son through him.

Elders are authority when they are given a position. An elder is not always one who is older in age, but he is almost always one who is a father, thus proving his authority in more than one area.  The phrase acknowledging one having an authority of an elder is to “sit at the gate”. In fact, the verb “to sit” is often used to show authority.  Over Israel or Judah as a nation is a group of 70 elders who represent Israel as a whole.  This group is what becomes the Sanhedrin in New Testament times.

“Judge” is also a term of authority.  In the book of Judges, a judge is primarily a warrior who also becomes an authority, creating order amongst the kingless tribes of Israel.  But a judge is not always a warrior, but simply one who is some kind of acknowledged authority (I Samuel 2).  Of course “king” is kind of political authority.  Yet one could also be a “king of kings” or emperor, in which local kings over a city or small nation would take orders from a more powerful king. 

“God” or “son of god” are also authoritative terms.  While modern monotheism insists on using the term “God” only for the one greatest spiritual authority, the Bible has no qualms calling other authorities “god” as well.  Lesser spiritual authorities under Yahweh are called “god” and even Moses and Herod were called “god”, although the latter was punished for it (.  Many ancient human authorities were called “god”—Pharaoh, Alexander the great, Antiochus Epiphaies, and some Roman emperors— but most Roman and Greek rulers refrained from the title, for it was considered impious.  On the other hand, many ancient rulers accepted the term “son of God” as being a proper title.  While in Egypt and other cultures it might be describing the actual physical conceiving of the king, in ancient Israel Yahweh adopted the king as his own son and would treat him as a son through provision and discipline.

The words “master” or “lord” are the same Greek word an

Characteristics of Ancient Authority

1.      Authority Is Praised

An authority is honored in open speech for the authority he has and for the powerful deeds he has done (I Chronicles 16).  For example, an emperor might be “praised” for having many kings acknowledge him as their lord, or for his having conquered and humiliated many kings (Daniel 2:37).  Praise is a word of honor, but it is only an acknowledgement of what is true—flattery is not praise.  The Hebrew words yada and toda mean both “praise” and “confession” in different contexts, and even the “praise” mentioned is only a confession of what is really true.  A word of praise can also be a blessing, or a word of hope that an authority would be granted greatness (Daniel 6:6). But blessing can be given from an authority as well as a vassel.  An enemy can acknowledge the power of his enemy, but not do so in praise (Job 41).  One praises an authority by acknowledging his lordship or reign over one.  Thus, there is an aspect of praise that is allegiance as well. 

Every authority insists on a certain amount of praise.  A parent is to be honored as one’s authority (Exodus 20:12). A king and emperor is to be praised every time another under him approaches him (Daniel 6:19-21).  Praise is also used to deflect punishment from one who is stronger—to acknowledge the other’s authority through strength helps avoid him using the strength to punish the one praising (Genesis 33)

       Praise is not just something that comes from one individual to another.  One is acknowledged as king by a multitude, and one might also glorify oneself—proclaim one’s own lordship.  A self-proclamation of lordship, however, is difficult if the authority one claims one does not in reality have, for any proper authority who hears of this self-praise will kill one for it.  A parade or procession is done strictly for the purpose of offering praise from all sides.  The multitudes praise the authority of one and the authority in question puts himself in a place to glorify himself.

      The opposite of praise is to deny another’s strength or authority.  In Hebrew, “cursing” is to “make of no account” in one’s speech.  Blasphemy is to “put a hole in” one’s reputation.  Reviling or denouncing also tears down one’s authority.  To lessen one’s authority in speech is an unpardonable offense, which results in death.

      In modern times, praise is given in patriotic speeches, but most often in acknowledgement of allegiance.  Praise in the modern world is also found in receiving votes.  A vote is a surrender of allegiance, and the one who receives the greatest amount of allegiance will gain the office.  The only difference between voting in the modern age and “voting”—popular acknowledgement of allegiance—in the ancient world, is that a war is usually fought in the ancient world to hold the popular allegiance.  In the modern world, once the popular allegiance is determined, then even the opponents of the winning candidate acknowledge allegiance to the office, if not always the person.

2.      Authority has property

One cannot be an authority in the ancient world without having property of some kind.  To have ownership or mastery over something is having the ability to create order amongst a certain property.  Mastery over a land is not having a contract that determines ownership, but it is the ability to do as one likes with the land.  Abraham and Jacob could not acknowledge master over a land because any time trouble came their way, they had to move to another land, even if they had purchased the land (Genesis 12:6-10; 33: 17-20; 35:1).  However, it was acknowledged that Abraham and Jacob had quite a bit of authority because of their many slaves and livestock, and especially Jacob due to his four wives and many children.  All of this was considered property.

            A man’s family is his property to order as he pleases—and a man actually had a responsibility to order his family properly, according to societal standards (I Timothy 3:4).  A husband had authority over his wife and concubines, for sexual intercourse made a woman a possession of a man (II Samuel 16:21-22).  For this reason adultery is so significant, for a married woman to have sex with another man is to place him as authority over her—she seeking another master (Hosea 2:5).  And a man having sex with a married woman is stealing another man’s property (Jeremiah 5:7-8).  Also, any man who has sex with an unmarried woman is stealing property from her father and so her father must be recompensed, either through wealth or through marriage of his daughter (Genesis 34:1-4; Exodus 22:16-17).

            A man’s children are his property.  This has partly to do with the biological idea of how conception works, through an agricultural analogy.  A woman is the field within which a man’s seed (Greek, sperma) is planted, from which a child is produced.  Since the child is simply the outgrowth of seed, it is wholy a man’s property, although the mother certainly has some authority over the child.  The ethical responsibility of a man for his children, therefore, is less in protection and provision—which one would do with any part of one’s property, just to care for it—but in making sure the child is well-trained before releasing it on society (Proverbs 22:6; Ephesians 6:4).  Just as a master is responsible for an ox to be trained not to harm another person or to tie it up, even so a child must be trained in the proper response in society, or any harm he causes is the responsibility of the father (Exodus 21:28-29).  However, if the child is damaged due to the neglect of the father, there is no societal punishment—he is just not taking good care of his property.

            A man or woman’s slaves are also their property.  Slavery in the ancient world is completely different from employment, or “service”, in the modern or ancient world.  In the ancient world, a “hireling” is hired on a day-by-day basis and is paid at the end of the day for the work done (Leviticus 19:13; Matthew 20:1-8).  A slave, however, is property, doing work for his master and receiving only what it is his master’s pleasure to give him (Luke 17:7-9).  However, the state of a slave in the ancient world is in many ways more beneficial than a hireling, unlike slavery as it was known in North America.  If a slave had a good master, he had greater opportunity for economic wealth and authority within his master’s property than a hireling had outside of another’s property.  A steward (a slave which a master gave authority to take charge over some of his property) in a wealthy master’s estate could have extensive authority and honor, and even be able to purchase his own freedom (Genesis 39:4; Luke 12:42-44).  A hireling is usually relegated to the poor, being little more than immigrants waiting on the street corner for a day’s labor. 

            Slavery also went beyond simple mastery.  A king may have warriors or workers who were called “slaves” but could also be honored as the greatest of his men (I Samuel 18:30-19:1).  They were slaves to the king in the sense that they were at the king’s beck and call and received only what the king determined to give them.  But their only debt to the king was that of their allegiance.  Thus, allegiance and service also creates slavery, although the ruler would have greater ethical responsibilities than in more conventional slavery (II Samuel 11:24-12:10).

            In modern times, property also carries authority, although only when ownership can be proven.  The political authority of ownership is less seen in government, however, than in corporations, which use property to order their world.  Even so, generally, ownership of property does not indicate the greatest amount of authority in modern times, for a greater authority can determine the use of another’s owned property.  In the ancient world, this is only true if the greater authority in reality owned what the lesser authority had because the lesser authority was a slave of the greater authority.

3.      Authority commands by word only

An ancient authority has the ability to command and to be obeyed.  Word is the command of an authority that results in action taken (I Kings 2:36-46).  A true authority will speak a word, and it will happen.  An authority might speak what will happen, but that is not in the matter of a prophecy, but because they have enough authority to command his property to do as he pleases. 

            Anyone can cause events to happen.  An animal or a child can dig a hole, any mob can destroy a city.  However, only an authority can command events to happen without his hands. 

The greater the authority, the more “magical” his commands are—he can order events from a distance away, a long time removed, unseen by those whom the events effect (Matthew 8:8-9).  However, this command is not magical at all, but simply a matter of who has authority to command whom.  If the unseen spirits are under your authority, unseen events can happen at your command (Luke 10:17-19).

In the modern world, authority is seen in the same way.  The President of the U.S. holds some of the greatest authority in the world, not because of his property, but because he is able to command things to happen around the world, while he never leaves his desk.  The greater authority is the one who can command the most to happen.  While an authority might be ethically praised if he or she also works with his or her hands, it has no bearing on the greatness of the authority he or she wields.

4.      Authority grants provision

Ancient authority is responsible for the well being of all who are under them.  This means that if there is a lack of food, clothing, shelter or other basic needs, the authority is looked to as the one who supplies it (Genesis 41).  If a famine, epidemic or some other disaster strikes the realm, the king is responsible to seek out the spirit who caused it and to appease that spirit (II Samuel 21:1; I Chronicles 21). 

An authority is also to listen to those who are in need in his realm and to attempt to solve the problem.  An authority is responsible for all those who are needy in the realm, from widows and orphans to strangers to those in debt to those suddenly impoverished (Exodus 21:21-27; Psalm 82).  Thus, if any of the needy in his realm cannot gain what they need, then they can approach the authority and ask for his justice and resources. At the same time, he is not responsible to care for the needy if they do not come to him and ask him for justice.

In modern times, especially since World War I, the authority’s responsibility to care for the needy has taken on new heights, especially under the influence of Socialism and Marxism.  And the kind of needs provided for has increased as well, including not only food and shelter, but also health care and transportation. 

5.      Authority has economic control

One of the main purposes of the larger ancient authorities is to gain greater economic control.  Emperors desired to gain more wealth, and if they had the warriors to do it, they would conquer other nations and provinces in order to tax them.  Conquering would also provide other means of control, but often later attacks by the emperor rested on one issue: are they paying the required tribute or not?

            Even more insignificant authorities received tribute and collected taxes—from temples to governors to priests to local soldiers—they all could demand their share of one’s meager income.  If an economic gift was demanded and had a set amount—such as a percentage or a flat amount—then it was called a tax.  If the gift was voluntary or had adjustable amounts depending on income, then it was called a tribute or an offering.  Usually a tax would be the payment of living in a community, under an authority, while an offering would be freely offered in order to gain an authorities favor or special acceptance.

            The greater authorities—kings and emperors or sometimes tribal rulers (“judges”)—would determine the medium of economy as well.  Some authorities were content to allow barter to be the means of trade, with merchants using precious metals as a medium.  Others looked to provide a medium themselves, and so coins were created.  Coins were imprinted with symbols of an authority to indicate the owner of the coin and in what realm it would be accepted.  If Herod’s name was on the coin, the coin was acceptable among all the “slaves” of Herod—his people.  It was not accepted in other realms. 

            The greater authorities in modern times—the nation-states and the corporations—of course have tight control over the economies of the world and seek to develop them according to their economic theory, whether a captialist one, a socialist or a communist.  Coins and paper money are created by nations to keep the nation’s economy under the control of the governmental authority.

6.      Authority orders law over the realm

While ancient authorities often rules arbitrarily, the ideal for each authority is to establish a Law by which they would consistently rule their realm. This law is a written rule of what is just in a certain realm and then orally proclaimed to the people. In this manner, justice would not show favoritism, but would be equal for all, and everyone would have a standard by which they could compare justice.  The Law determines how the land and people of the authority will be ruled on all levels—whether by kings, judges, elders, or local enforcement.

1. Authority creates law

In the ancient world, law was created by only the highest authority, with some exceptions.  For this reason, a king would often declare that his law came from his god, a higher authority that could not be questioned.  In this way, the law could not be questioned.  The earlier laws were not added to, such as the Mosaic Law.  However, the Medes, the Greeks and the Romans found that they needed to pass laws in accordance with new situations that were created.  So they instituted ways in which laws might be created by the highest human authorities and then be binding to all peoples in their realm.  Among the Medes, the King passed laws and they were then announced to the peoples.  Among the Greeks, the free men would gather in each city-state and pass laws for the city.  Among the Romans, their oligarchic senators and emperors would create laws for all the people.

In modern times, legislative bodies on all levels of government and in every community and group pass laws and policies that establish the ways of life for every conceivable group—from family to the entire world.

2. Authority applies the law to specific contexts

The laws of the ancient world were broad enough that they could be interpreted in various ways by different groups.  The job of many local magistrates and judges were to apply the law handed to them by greater authorities to specific situations.  This often required such a broad knowledge of law that a supporting profession was created, usually among professional scribes, who would memorize large portions of the law in question and quote it as the need arose.  They would also read of past judicial decisions to those who needed to make decisions of justice.

Today the judicial aspect of government is unbelievably huge and filled with judges, lawyers, para-legals and bureaucrats, whose whole obstenible purpose is to apply the extensive national and international laws correctly to every possible situation.

3. Authority enforces law

Once a law was put into effect, it must be obeyed or else penalties, also stipulated by the law, would come into effect.  In order to enforce this law, armies or would often be established to ensure the proper obedience.  Anyone found disobeying the law, whether knowingly or not, would be brought in to an authority who would administer a just penalty.

In modern times, most executive aspects of law are enforced by police, although armies do some limited enforcement, especially for international law.

7.      Authority punishes rebels or those who create an alternative order than the one the authority created

Exiles or executes rebels

Slaps unruly slaves

Disciplines children

8.      Establishes contracts with other authorities

Establishes physical boundaries

Marries and gives in marriage

9.      Protection from outside enemies

Enacts war

How an authority increases his authority

a.       Increasing slaves

b.      Having more acknowledge his authority

c.       Gaining more wives

d.      Gaining more children

e.       Gaining more who are indebted to one

f.       Gaining a blessing from a greater authority

g.      Increasing one’s armed force

h.      Defeating other provinces

i.         

Yahweh God is the Ultimate Authority

1.      God receives praise from all creatures

Psalm 30:4-- Yahweh is praised by the godly ones

Psalm 65:1; Psalm 102:21—Zion and Jerusalem praises Yahweh.

Psalm 66:2; Psalm 67-- All Peoples praise Yahweh

Psalm 69:34-- Heaven and Earth praises Yahweh

Psalm 100:4-- Those who enter Yahweh's court praise him.

Psalm 148-- All the powers of the heaven, all the creatures of the earth praise Yahweh.

I Chronicles 16:23-35-- Glory is given to Yahweh from all creatures and peoples on earth

Daniel 5:23-- God even punishes emperors who do not honor him

2.      God announces his glory to all the earth

Exodus 34:6-7-- Yahweh declares his character as king

Isaiah 40:25-- Yahweh speaks of his greatness

Job 38-41-- God delcares his power and greatness above every great creature in the earth.

Leviticus 9:23-- The glory of the Lord appeared to all his people

Numbers 14:21-- The earth will be filled with the glory of the Lord

Deuteronomy 5:24-- The Lord displayed his own greatness

John 12:28-- The Father glorifies his own name

3.      God commands by his word alone and all things are done

Genesis 1—The whole earth is re-created by God’s speech

Matthew 19:26; Mark 10:27; Luke 1:37—All things are possible for God.

Matthew 17:20-- Nothing is impossible for the one who has authority from God.

Exodus 9:18-21-- Yahweh gave a word and those who heeded it saved their livestock

Numbers 11:23-- Moses doubts Yahweh's word.  Yahweh answers with a rhetorical question, "Is Yahweh's power limited?"

Joshua 23:14-- Not one of Yahweh's words failed

God orders his servants and they obey him

Numbers 3:16-- Moses obeys God's word

Numbers 22:20-- Balaam shall only do what God's word is.

Joshua 8:8, 27-- Jericho was taken at obedience to Yahweh's word

Those not doing or speaking Yahweh’s word is not his servant

Deuteronomy 18:20-22-- The presumpuous prophet is the one who speaks not Yahweh's word, for Yahweh's word is always done

Numbers 15:31-- The one who despises Yahweh's word will be cut off from Yahweh's people

I Sam 15:23, 26-- Saul rejected Yahweh's words so Yahweh recected his authority

4.    God provides justice and food for all creatures, all the poor

Genesis 1:29-30; 2:9; 9:3-- God provides food for all the creatures of the earth from what he created

Psalm 145:14-19-- Yahweh provides for all living things, he provides justice for all who cry out to him.

Psalm 146:7-9-- Yahweh offers assistance to all the helpless, the oppressed, the hungry, the prisoners, the blind, the righteous, the strangers, the fatherless and the widow

Deuteronomy 15—A special year is set aside to forgive those in debt

5.      God receives sacrifices

Genesis 4—Sacrifice from Cain and Abel

Leviticus 1-5—Yahweh receives regular sacrifices

Malachi 1—Yahweh’s sacrifices should be of top qualities, like a governor’s

Yahweh commands taxes to be given to his servants

Leviticus 27:30-33; Numbers 18:21, 24; Deuteronomy 26:10-13—One tenth belongs to Yahweh, and that is to be given to the Levites. Every third year, another tenth is to be taken and given to the Levites and the needy.

6.      God has created a basic law for all creatures and a law for his people and he enforces this law

Genesis 1, 3—Law given to Adam

Genesis 9—Law given to Noah

Exodus 20-23—Law given to the Israelites through Moses

God judges his people

Psalm 7:8-- Yahweh judges the people

Jeremiah 11:20-- Yahweh judges according to the heart of those whom he is judging

God enforces the law with punishments and blessings

Leviticus 23

Deuteronomy 30

7.      God punishes anyone who opposes his law, or who harms his people

8.      God establishes covenants with his creatures

All authority is based on God’s authority

9.      God created all things and they are all his slaves

10.   God is a warrior that defeats his enemies

Jesus has authority in the heavens

1.      Jesus is praised by spiritual beings

2.      Jesus commands spiritual beings by word alone

3.      Jesus enforces God’s law among the spiritual world

4.      Jesus exiles spirits who are in rebellion against God’s will

5.      Jesus created all things

Jesus has authority over individuals who offer him allegiance

1.      Individuals proclaim him king and he receives it

2.      Jesus announces his glory privately

3.      Jesus commands humans who offer him allegiance

4.      Jesus provides food for those who are under his teaching

5.      Jesus receives gifts from individuals who honor him

6.      Jesus announces a new law on his own authority and enforces that law among those committed to him

7.      Jesus establishes a covenant with his disciples

8.      Jesus establishes his servants through offering them God’s mercy

Jesus does not have authority over God’s people before his resurrection

1.      Jesus does not receive kingship/allegiance from multitudes

Jesus does not receive praise from those who are not committed to him

2.      Jesus refuses to announce his glory (until his entrance into Jerusalem)

Jesus quiets any claims of authority

3.      Jesus refuses to be a judge over those not committed to his law

4.      Among those not committed to him, Jesus speaks of God’s law, but not his own.

5.      Jesus does not force enslavement.

Establishing Political Authority

Self-proclamation—Declaring oneself an authority and collecting subjects toward this goal

Fatherhood—Establish authority by siring many children and giving them a law and inheritance, thus creating a nation

Empirical approach—Using force to establish authority

            Armies battle to take over regions and peoples

            Through threats, forcing other authorities to establish covenants and pay tribute

Benevolence approach—Doing favors in order to receive favors

            Establishing a governance for one in order to maintain their allegiance

            Offering food, shelter or education to become a patron

           

Prophetic—Declaring oneself to represent a greater authority, especially God

Lobbying—Making friends with the great in order to gain appointments or counsel them

            Offering money or gifts to the great

            Using one’s influence with others for the sake of an authority

Oligarchy—Using wealth to create order

            Buying slaves/servants

            Buying land or possessions

            Buying citizenship

Democracy—Using fame or popularity to gain authority

Revolution—Using an underground war to undermine authority

The Way of the Cross—Humility which causes God to act in one’s favor

Motivations for Establishing Authority

Self-seeking—For one’s own glory/power

Idealist—To establish one’s ideal of justice/righteousness

Ambassador— To establish glory/power for another

Security—To secure the authority one already has

Deliverer—To release a specific group of people from misery

Jesus was seeking to establish his authority on earth

1.      He spoke and acted by God’s authority.

2.      He sought disciples/slaves to come by their own choice.

3.      He did favors for many, especially those who believed in him, expecting honor in return

4.      He announced his own law and insisted on obedience

5.      He established messengers and sent them with authority to declare a message of change of authority and to do favors in Jesus’ name.

6.      He proclaimed the end of the current authorities.

7.      He declared himself to be a future authority before the Jewish and Roman authorities

Jesus sought to establish his authority by way of the cross

1.      He insisted on God as the one true authority

2.      He dedicated himself to doing God’s will

3.      He insisted that his law was the true representation of God’s will

4.      He taught the way of the cross to his disciples

5.      He declared the way of the cross to be the fulfillment of Scriptures

6.      He declared the way of the cross to be the way to gain blessings from God.

7.      He refused the paths of force

8.      While popular, he knowingly made statements that made him unpopular with the crowds.

9.      He made statements that made him unpopular with authorities.

10.  He submitted to arrest, brutality and death at the hands of authorities.

11.  He cried out to God for deliverance.

12.  He declared that God would raise him up

Jesus’ Motivation for Gaining Authority Was for Others, Not Himself

1.      Jesus desired to establish God’s kingdom.

2.      Jesus desired to fulfill God’s promises.

3.      Jesus desired to do God’s will.

4.      Jesus desired to deliver captives.

5.      Jesus desired to heal the sick.

6.      Jesus desired to accept the outcast and sinner.

Jesus Gained Authority by the Way of the Cross

1.      Jesus put himself wholly under God’s authority

2.      Jesus made himself the enemy of authorities

3.      Jesus allowed himself to suffer and die at the hand of his enemies who held authority

4.      Jesus cried out to God for deliverance

5.      God raised Jesus from the dead

6.      Jesus declared his authority

7.      Jesus sent his disciples to proclaim his glory

The disciples of Jesus gain authority by way of the cross

1.      Jesus told the disciples not to use force to establish authority.

2.      Jesus sent the disciples to establish authority by teaching, healing, dicipling and baptizing.

3.      Jesus told the disciples not to resist authority, but to allow them to do oppression.

4.      The disciples wait on God to establish justice for their sake.

5.      The disciples do kindness to everyone, even to enemies, thinking about their well-being.

6.      The disciples of Jesus punish, but not with force.

7.      The disciples of Jesus do God’s will.

8.      The disciples are persecuted, rejected and hated.

9.      The disciples gain God’s inheritance because of what they suffered.

The disciples of Jesus did follow the way of the cross

1.      Peter suffered torture and rejection.

2.      James and Stephan died for their declaration about Jesus.

3.      The early church suffered persecution.

4.      Paul suffered rejection, persecution and near-death.

5.      Other disciples were persecuted.

6.      John the prophet was exiled.

7.      The martyrs of Revelation are persecuted, then exalted.

8.      Those who were persecuted for God were exalted by Jesus’ disciples.

9.      The disciples declared that whoever was persecuted for Jesus would be raised.